Sabtu, 10 Desember 2011
Kamis, 18 Agustus 2011
Writing Journal Part III By Endha Blog
The Process Writing Method
Daniel J. Jarvis
djarvis73 [at] msn.com
Six years ago, while beginning my teacher education program, I came across a book called Whole Language Strategies for ESL Students by Gail Heald-Taylor (1994). In her book Heald-Taylor describes an approach to writing called Process Writing. Now that I am getting ready to begin my fifth year teaching, I have realized that I have not only continued to use this approach, but have found it to be one of my most valuable tools to improve the writing of my English as a Second Language (ESL) students. I have used this approach with ESL students in grades 3-5 and beginning, intermediate, and advanced Adult ESL students at the community college level. In this article I am going to summarize Heald-Taylor's Process Writing approach with the addition of illustrations from my own experience at the elementary and community college level. The Process Writing Method would be a valuable tool for any ESL teacher who wants to improve the writing of their students.
Process Writing Method
Heald-Taylor (1986) describes her method in the following way:
"Process Writing is an approach which encourages ESL youngsters to communicate their own written messages while simultaneously developing their literacy skills in speaking and reading rather than delaying involvement in the writing process, as advocated in the past, until students have perfected their abilities in handwriting, reading, phonetics, spelling, grammar, and punctuation. In Process Writing the communication of the message is paramount and therefore the developing, but inaccurate, attempts at handwriting, spelling, and grammar are accepted, know that within the process of regular writing opportunities students will gain control of these sub-skills. These skills are further developed in individual and small group conference interviews."
Getting Started
ESL students are ready to begin writing as soon as they are able to speak in social and classroom situations, especially if they are initiating the conversations. The beginning writer will often use a variety of approaches when writing from illustrations, wiggles, invented spellings, or other representations of words. It is important that the student is able to discuss with the ESL teacher what those representations mean in order for the instructor to help the ESL student develop their writing skills.
Materials
Every student will need a writing dairy notebook, which later will be replaced with a writing folder in which ESL students will keep their completed work and works in progress. Students will also need a daily journal with about 30 pages of lined or unlined paper. Unlined paper is especially useful for the beginning writer, who may communicate their messages using illustrations or wiggles. The daily journal is intended for students to make journal entries on a daily basis. Students are asked to write on one side of the page. The other side is for comments made by the teacher and for translation. Having students write in a daily journal is extremely useful in that you have a daily record of the student's growth. These are very useful to use over the course of a school year. Teachers can pinpoint specific areas that students need assistance in. I have also found these very useful during parent-teacher conferences or problem solving team meeting. This allows the teacher to show what specific areas they have been working on with the student, what strategies they have used, and the results of the work done. At the end of the school year, students often value their journals because they can visually see the growth they have achieved. Journals can also be saved to show growth over multiple years.
Illustrations
Many of the ESL students I have had in my classes have preferred to draw pictures first because they can include many concepts that they would not be able to express verbally. Drawings and illustrations are a very important part of beginning writing. However, not all students will draw first. Many will prefer to write before they draw a picture. Illustrations are a way for ESL students to understand new concepts or vocabulary in a context that makes the new concepts or vocabulary meaningful and more readily internalized by the learner. Illustrations also enable ESL students to link new concepts and vocabulary to prior knowledge by visually showing the connection between different concepts. I have had many students who have had a love and a talent for art, which helped develop their love of writing because they could see the connection between how writing can influence art and how art can influence their writing.
The First Lesson
The very first lesson will be a modeling of how to develop and write a story. Modeling the process helps to ensure that the students grasp the assignment. The class will begin by developing a class story with the students assisting in the development and the writing of the story. The story can be written on the chalkboard, chart paper, or on overhead transparencies. Give the students the option of what to write about and ask them what you should write for the very first sentence. Have the students try to say the sentence out loud and have the author try to write the sentence on the chalkboard, chart paper, or overhead transparencies. The student may only know one of the letters of a word or may not know the work at all. If the student does not know the word or a large portion of a word, have the student write a line or wiggle to represent the word or partial word. Ask the rest of the class to assist in completing the words and sentence. In these beginning stories, grammar and syntax may not always be perfect. Accepting the language a student uses at the time is very important. Over time, as the student has more opportunity to develop language, the student will improve in their language ability. Accepting the varying ability levels of is very important. All students should feel good about wanting to participate and feel successful about the progress they are making in writing. It is also very important that you teach your students to be accepting of the different ability levels in the class, especially for the Adult ESL student. In my experience, adults are much more affected by the criticism of their classmate than young students. Adult students who do not feel good about their writing will not write or want to share their writing. All students need to fell good about the progress they have made.
On Their Own
Everyday ESL students need to be encouraged to work on writing their own stories and making entries in their diaries. Students need to know that they must practice writing every day. They need to understand that it is okay to make mistakes in their stories and journal and not to get stuck on worrying whether or not their writing is perfect. In my class, I explain to my students that writing like anything else they want to get better at requires practice. Having a pencil on paper is the only way that students will improve their writing. This is also an area where teachers have a problem. Many teachers see more writing as more work they have to grade and correct. If students write stories and dairy entries daily, at the end of the week this may seem like a lot of grading for the teacher to do. Teachers need to be okay with not having to grade and correct every piece of writing a student creates. Students and parents also need to understand that not every piece of writing will be corrected and graded. Here is an example of how to relate this to other aspects of life. If your student is involved in a sport, they will attend practice all week long, however, the wins and losses that occur during practice are not recorded. Practice is a time to make mistakes and get better. Game days are the only event that really "counts" on the win/loss column. It is the same way with writing. Students need the opportunity to practice, to make mistakes and get better. Then they take what they have learned and apply it on "Game Day" or in education "Test Day." Using this approach a teacher will not become overwhelmed by grading a never-ending stack of paper.
Translation
When students complete their stories many of them will have lines, wiggles, invented spelling, and other representations for words. Take this opportunity to have the student "read" their stories to you. While the student in reading their story, use the blank side of the paper to write the translation of their story in the proper form. Go over the translation of the story with the student pointing out what they did correctly. Knowing what they did correctly allows students to feel good about what they are doing right and shows them what they need to work on without focusing on the negative.
"What Should I Write About?"
In the beginning, many students will have a difficult time deciding on a topic to write about. At first, the teacher may need to provide students with topics based upon learning experiences they have had in the classroom, experiences at home, or experiences they have had in the world. It is important to develop topics with which the students have had some experience. This allows the student to draw upon prior knowledge to connect with the writing topic. This will expand the base of vocabulary that a student has to draw from in the development of their story. Students need to "see" the connection between writing and other subjects. By developing an understanding of the connection between subjects, students will not only progress in the development of their writing but also in the other subject areas.
Student-Teacher Writing Conferences
Teachers need to set up individual conference interview with their ESL students to support their writing development. Heald-Taylor states,
"In conference interviews students are invited to further develop their stories, to add more information, to include descriptive language, to order information, and to develop skills in phonetics, spelling, grammar, and punctuation."
Heald-Taylor describes two types of conferences, the content conference and the skill conference. In the content conference, the teacher asks the student for more information about their story. Some students will respond verbally and some will add additional information to the story. It is important not to push students in to the drafting and revising process. They will do this on their own when they are ready. It is also important for the teacher not to revise or edit their work for them. When a teacher does this the writing is no longer the students writing. It has become the teacher's creation. During the skill conference, the student and teacher will focus on writing skills such as phonetics, spelling, grammar, and punctuation. It is important that the teacher only focuses on one skill at a time until that skill is learned. Allow the students to guide the direction of skill focus by allowing them to incorporate knowledge they have already learned. Students are more likely to internalize new skills if they can make connections to prior knowledge.
Why Process Writing Works
As any ESL teacher will tell you, ESL students of the same age and grade level will have varying abilities in writing. Process Writing will assist ESL students, whatever their ability level, improve their writing. Once an ESL student understands the process and trust that the teacher will accept and approve of their invented symbols and spelling, the ability to write improves dramatically. The key to learning to write is feeling confident in your abilities. Many students do not enjoy writing because they feel that if they cannot do it correctly the first time then they will never get it. Learning to write like learning to do many things requires practice and time. All students are capable to becoming excellent writers given enough practice and time. The Process Writing method values the talents and growth of individual writers and makes them want to continue writing because they feel good about their abilities. The Process Writing method is an approach that has help me developed many youngsters and adults into wonderful writers.
Reference
- Heald-Taylor, Gail. Whole Language Strategies for ESL Students.
The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VIII, No. 7, July 2002
http://iteslj.org/
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Jarvis-Writing.html
Writing Journal Part II By Endha Blog
Best Writing Practices for Graduate Students: Reducing the Discomfort of the Blank Screen
Module by: Carol Mullen. E-mail the author
Summary:
With support and guidance, graduate students can successfully pursue academic writing for publication. In graduate circles, academic writing is presumed to be a solitary activity for which students already are prepared. Yet, the reality is that students tend to find academic writing difficult and stressful, and they often look to university faculty members for guidance. Faculty members, in turn, may provide hands-on practice and other classroom support in an effort to teach writing, even though they have had little or no instruction on how to do so. In this article discussion is provided of what researchers say about writing, challenges of teaching writing, and writing ideas and strategies.
Previously published:
In graduate circles, academic writing is
presumed to be a solitary activity for which students already are
prepared. Yet, the reality is that students tend to find academic
writing difficult and stressful, and they often look to university
faculty members for guidance. Faculty members, in turn, may provide
hands-on practice and other classroom support in an effort to teach
writing, even though they have had little or no instruction on how
to do so (Thomas 2005).
Helping students become competent writers is
always a challenge, and educators continually should seek out new
ideas and approaches. I concur with Stevenson’s (2006, 1080)
position in her essay on the teaching of writing: “With regard to
current curriculum design, it is doubtful that one ‘best’ method
exists.” Recent research provides insights into university
classroom applications and suggests some fundamental best practices
of teaching writing to graduate students across educational
disciplines. Both university faculty members who teach
graduate-level writing and graduate students can benefit from a
review of these techniques.
What Researchers Say about Writing
Graduate students are novice researchers and
writers who must be initiated into the culture of academic writing.
The importance of graduate students learning academic writing is a
given; in fact, Stevenson (2006, 1080) argued, the “need for
writing has never been questioned.” Nonetheless, researchersof
graduate writing have been building a rationale for why students
should develop a facility with writing and have highlighted the
benefits of doing so (e.g., Mullen 2005; Richardson 1994;
Scardamalia and Bereiter 1986; Stevenson 2006; Thomas 2005).
Like their younger counterparts, graduate
students need to demonstrate high-level skills in reading
comprehension, thinking and reading critically (as in knowing how
to identify various rhetorical structures and to distinguish
between what should be said explicitly and implicitly), and
communicating with particular audiences for specific purposes. They
also should know how to collaborate on writing, how to use
technology, and how to write for specific genres, both professional
and academic. Educational studies of the young student (e.g.,
McCallister 2004), college student (e.g., Stevenson 2006), and
graduate student (e.g., Mullen 2003) all agree that writing
activities are the key to developing these wide-ranging
skills.
Two decades ago, Scardamalia and Bereiter
(1986) claimed that adult students would be able to keep pace with
the rising expectations for scholars and practitioners only if they
gained the necessary competence in writing. Facility not only with
the written language but also with research-based writing skills
has become the norm, even for doctoral students who are teachers
and leaders (Mullen 2005). Doctoral students must know how to write
well; moreover, those applying for academic positions in research
universities should be equipped with publication records (Cassuto
1998). Arguably, publication should not be thought of as an
esoteric activity reserved for “the elite”; rather, as Thomas
(2005) described, writing and publication are expected performances
for academics, much like playing a musical instrument and
performing at a concert are for musicians.
Unfortunately, the topics of graduate writing
and its instruction have been relegated to the periphery of the
literature, including the most current educational texts on
critical thinking and learning. Further, much of the research on
graduate-level writing focuses on how to produce an exemplary
dissertation or how to achieve publication (e.g., Henson1999).
Virtually overlooked are the steps involved in developing as a
writer or as a teacher of writing. In addition, research is only
gradually emerging that treats the graduate classroom as an arena
for academic writing (e.g., Bolton 1994; Mullen 2005;
1994; Thomas 2005).
The Challenge of Teaching Writing
University faculty members in schools of
education are central to helping students develop critical writing
skills. Faculty members can begin by designing writing programs—not
just assignments—that McCallister (2004, 144–45) would classify as
“reconceptualized.” These offer democratic models of learning that
emphasize “novel and creative thinking” and encourage “questioning,
connecting, and reflecting” over “obedience, efficiency, speed,
attentiveness, and memory.” A curriculum that approaches writing as
a social and cognitive process “positions the student squarely in
the midst of the world of things, ideas, history, and people and
invites him or her to use writing as a means to participate in that
world” (McCallister 2004, 145).
Up-to-date writing programs are necessary for
exposing students to the applicable knowledge base, current public
discourses, and relevant technologies—all of which are changing
rapidly across educational disciplines (Stevenson 2006). Though the
opportunity to write and share writing is emphasized in the K–12
context (e.g., McCallister 2004), the importance of creating
interactive learning environments for adult writers is gaining
recognition (e.g., Mullen 2003; Mullen with Tuten, in press; Thomas
2005).
University faculty members need to determine
how the goal of teaching writing fits with broader instructional
goals and where it best falls in the sequence of a program’s
courses, as this will affect the remaining curriculum. This means
that a syllabus probably will not be the only curriculum template
needing serious consideration. Importantly, as Thomas (2005)
explained and I demonstrate later, the faculty member might find
that a most compelling democratic method of teaching writing is the
workshop model, wherein the reconceptualized curriculum can be
enacted. Students write with purpose and by making choices, and the
professor focuses not on lecturing and providing packaged lessons,
but rather on sharing—as part of the group—ideas and feedback
directed at the learners’ needs.
A major aim of faculty members who teach
graduate-level writing involves seeking productive ways to engage
professionals in writing academic papers on contemporary topics.
Kuh (1999) suggested that when high-level performance is modeled,
positive learning is more apt to occur. Accordingly, writing
programs rooted in a workshop context have been known to foster
high-level performance, growth, and success (Thomas 2005). The
workshop environment is a place where the craft of writing is
modeled through doing, including hands-on activities and
in(ter)dependent projects in various stages of the writing process
(Mullen 2005; Ray and Laminack 2001; Thomas 2005). Writing teachers
such as Mullen, Thomas, and Stevenson, who have investigated their
own teaching, have concluded that structure, combined with
flexibility, promotes student success. In master’s and doctoral
courses approached as workshops, students have been known to
produce action studies of considerable complexity, some of which
appear in the literature (e.g., see the special issue of
International Journal of Educational Reform, Mullen 2004).
In the workshop environment, after the faculty
member covers the guidelines for assignments, students are invited
to share how they tackle academic writing. In these early
conversations, students often do not readily identify explicit,
well-honed writing and research strategies; instead, they may
flounder. Despite the years of writing experience students bring to
advanced study, they frequently express uncertainty about inquiry
as a learning process. While they can talk about reflective and
explanatory writing, when it comes to social science inquiry—the
educational paradigm that blends science and art and combines
reflection with analysis and evidence (e.g., Miles and Huberman
1994)—they struggle, seemingly as fledglings, to grasp new
territory.
Once the areas that need to be addressed are
identified, the hard work begins—and not just for the students.
Thomas (2005, 1) confirmed that as difficult as it may be to learn
how to write, “learning to teach writing may be even more
daunting.” Such an undertaking requires significant time and
effort, even for experienced teachers of writing and with the
application of best practices. However, the creation of a
successful student-centered curriculum is likely to emerge from
particular instructional characteristics (notably patience,
imagination, and flexibility), as well as a nonauthoritarian style
and a working knowledge of effective writing practices.
Writing Ideas and Strategies
Faculty members generally can empathize with
the graduate student’s struggle to pen ideas. Academic writing is
challenging, sometimes frustrating work. Instructors can help by
modeling authentic discourse in class—for instance, by revealing
personal vulnerabilities with respect to writing. However, this is
not enough. Sharing of fruitful ideas and strategies for enabling
novice writers to open up and take risks within a group context is
also vital.
I share with my new student groups, for
example, that I often feel overwhelmed when faced with a new
writing project, especially when grants and contracts intensify the
responsibility. I then go on to describe the strategies I use for
reducing the discomfort of the blank screen and the anonymous
critic. In turn, I invite students to share first with a “neighbor”
and then with the whole group their vulnerabilities and strategies
as developing writers. This conversation sets the tone for a
personal learning experience that promises to be highly productive,
even exciting.
Here, I open up the pedagogical toolkit that
supports university teachers of writing, regardless of a course’s
title and content. All the strategies that follow appear in the
literature and are among the best practices used in my graduate
courses. Though they have been classified in this section, each
fits more than one theme.
Developing Identity as Writer
For students to realize that they are already
writers, albeit developing, can be empowering. Writing instructor
McCourt (2005, 244–45) shared this liberating perspective with his
high school students:
Every moment of your life, you’re writing.
Even in your dreams, you’re writing. When you walk the halls in
this school, you meet various people and you write furiously in
your head. There’s the principal. You make a decision—a greeting
decision. A simple stroll in the hallway calls for paragraphs,
sentences in your head, decisions galore.
The identity of students as writers is not
esoteric or far-fetched; rather, this standpoint is relevant to who
they are now and who they are becoming. One technique that can be
used for encouraging this self-image involves the spontaneous
recording of thoughts or feelings about the course itself or a
particular exchange; after writing for a few minutes, volunteers
share. As an outgrowth of this practice—and on a more sophisticated
level—action researchers could keep a learning journal, recording
their observations of places or people, reflections on interviews
or interactions, and interpretations of data.
Closely related to this notion of the
developing identity of the writer is finding a voice. Voice in the
academic graduate-level context is not so much associated with an
unraveling of self or a process of self-therapy as with a
connection to what Stevenson (2006, 1081) described as an
“understanding of the social milieu in which [students] write,”
which “parallels the ways writing is done in the professional
world.”
Creating a Studio Environment
Many students are plagued by procrastination
along with concerns and questions about their writing. In a studio
context devoted to writing and sharing writing, students can
experience a healthy and productive writing process. Writing
instructors can help students new to the social sciences and
educational inquiry by providing samples of exemplary writing
forms, creating a guide that can be used to satisfy the
expectations for rigorous work, and allowing students the time to
write in the desired format (Stevenson 2006). Students can easily
relate to the work of their peers and find the accomplished writing
products of classmates to be especially good samples; the samples
also make the task seem less intimidating and more achievable
(Mullen 2005).
In an environment fondly referred to as the
“writing studio,” my students excel. During a writing studio
session, novice writers complete exercises in developing outlines,
writing proposals, revising writing, accessing materials online,
and learning academic formatting. They also have opportunities to
consult with peers and the instructor, and to brainstorm about
various conceptual and technical matters.
For my doctoral courses, the writing studio is
simply a regular classroom, wired for Internet access; for my
master’s classes, the writing studio is in a computer laboratory
with word processing and other software. No doubt, today’s college
writing studio needs to incorporate the computer and the Internet
to foster active learning. The blank computer screen should
transform into a productive writing tablet as students access
information via relevant Web sites and databases, incorporate that
research into their text, and develop a well-supported
thesis.
Students should be encouraged to ask their
instructor questions about their projects and to request that the
instructor read and critique drafts, as well as recommend or even
help them obtain relevant materials (e.g., sources, references,
databases). The instructor’s feedback also might be sought
regarding strategies for including quotes, developing interview or
survey protocols, presenting data results and evidence, and
creating informative charts.
Using Small Assignments
Small assignment has at least two meanings.
First, I see it as a short piece of writing that can stand on its
own and supply the “seed” for the “plant,” the larger paper. A good
writing assignment for the studio is a review—essentially a
thoughtful critique of an article, book, or dissertation on the
same topic as the major paper. I encouraged one doctoral student,
who decided to write her long paper on low-performing schools and
cultures of resilience, to first review someone else’s work on the
subject. That same evening, we located a relevant dissertation,
starting her on the journey of preparing a small assignment in the
area of her scholarly interest. Students respond well to this
opportunity to write developmentally on a selected topic while
advancing their skills as writer and reviewer.
Second, the small assignment is a tool for
managing a larger work by identifying its distinct parts. Lamott
(1994) admitted to sometimes feeling emotionally besieged at the
prospect of writing a new book. For inspiration, she peers through
a one-inch picture frame that she keeps on her desk. Writing
becomes possible when she can motivate herself “to figure out a
one-inch piece of [her] story to tell, one small scene, one memory,
one exchange” (Lamott 1994, 18). Instead of trying to write a novel
from start to finish, she constructs a story (e.g., a character’s
experience of the sunrise) that is somehow integral to the larger
work. She even sets a goal for the number of words she will produce
each day on a given subject. Eventually, she weaves together the
parts into an evolving whole. Students similarly can find
motivation and tame the rigorous demands of a larger work by
crafting small segments, such as a description of a setting or
group, or a summary of responses to a survey study.
Encouraging Draft Writing
First drafts, according to Lamott (1994,
21–22), are equated with “the child’s draft, where you let it all
pour out and then let it romp all over the place, knowing that no
one is going to see it and that you can shape it later.” The first
draft is the writer’s “channel” for “whatever voices and visions
come through and onto the page” (Lamott 1994, 23). Though Lamott’s
context is not social science, students are reassured to know that
many accomplished writers lack excitement and confidence when
approaching the task and that few produce eloquent first drafts.
Stevenson (2006, 1080) explained, “Writing is a complex, recursive
process that is subject to false starts, trial and error, and
constant revision.” Drafting, revising, editing, and review are all
techniques used for improving texts; ideally, peer listeners and
readers should be incorporated from start to finish.
Young students who have the freedom to
exercise choices in content and form are on their way to authentic
writing (Thomas 2005). Adult students, however, often function best
when they have a sense of direction; so they prepare flexible
blueprints in the form of outlines and proposals. In class,
students can generate, alone or with coauthors, a brief proposal
(one to two pages) serving as a preliminary synopsis of their
topic, focus, research question(s), setting, methods, key
participants, and references. Depending on the circumstances they
encounter as action researchers, proposals may change as they
investigate further. Students usually end up with a more focused
and coherent study when they plan, brainstorm, and problem-solve
with their peers and experts, and use techniques consistent with
social science inquiry.
Designing Interconnected Writing
Writing assignments, like Russian nesting
dolls, can be designed for interconnection—that is, stacking one
inside another. Students who prepare a small assignment then can
develop it into a larger work (e.g., action study, literature
review), by incorporating additional elements, such as an
introduction, research, survey results, and conclusions. A great
deal of productivity can be realized within a short period when the
“stacking” approach is used.
Instructors enable writing as a process of
inquiry when a selected issue is tackled over time and in the form
of intrinsically connected assignments. With intermittent feedback
from instructors, students synthesize scholarly arguments and
references they have been formulating or gathering in the
construction of their work. When writing the major paper, students
are more comfortable if they have produced small works that, once
creatively assembled, are reconstructed into a larger work.
Scaffolding Assisted Learning
Assisted learning, another best practice of
graduate teaching and learning, is grounded in constructivist
psychological theory. This strategy entails mastery learning,
faculty mentoring, and scaffolding. In assisted learning, the
professor provides all the support that students need to learn how
to perform a task effectively (Mullen 2006). As students acquire
the knowledge, skills, and disposition needed to carry out action
research, for example, their independence and interdependence
overshadow the constant need for teacher assistance.
Through assisted learning, combined with other
components of the writing curriculum, instructors shape students’
behavior from a generalized understanding to the specific ability
to write professionally. Students become better prepared academics,
even empowered, when they learn about professional writing and the
publication process itself. During online studio time, students can
search for appropriate publishing venues. Their final, revised
works are reviewed not only by faculty committees but also by
academic publishers, who may provide additional feedback.
Dissemination of students’ work is a concrete goal worthy of
attention in the formal curriculum.
Parting Reflection
All the best practices described here support
the preparation of students for the world of scholarly inquiry and
the demands of high-quality scholarship. Their application can
enhance the development of students, as well as their instructors,
as both scholars and practitioners. Both instructors and graduate
students are encouraged to experiment with these ideas and
strategies.
Graduate students certainly are able to learn
how to write and disseminate their original works, and they can
benefit greatly from the opportunity to learn from a formal
curriculum that moves them through the phases of developing an
educational study. Institutions of higher education are wise to
support university faculty in developing program and policy
initiatives that meet these academic goals.
References
Fictional-critical writing as a means of professional development.
British Educational Research Journal 20(1): 55–68.
Cassuto, L. 1998. Pressures to publish fuel
the professionalization of today’s graduate students. The Chronicle
of Higher Education, November 27.
Henson, K. T. 1999. Writing for professional
publication: Keys to academic and business success.
Heights: Allyn & Bacon.
Kuh, G. D. 1999. Setting the bar high to
promote student learning. In Good practice in student affairs:
Principles to foster student learning, ed. G. S. Blimling, E. J.
Whitt and Associates, 67–89.
Lamott, A. 1994. Bird by bird: Some
instructions on writing and life.
McCallister, C. 2004. Writing education
practices within the reconceptualized curriculum. In Critical
thinking and learning: An encyclopedia for parents and teachers,
ed. J. L. Kincheloe and D. Weil, 144–48.
Press.
McCourt, F. 2005. Teacher man: A memoir. New
Miles, M. B., and A. M. Huberman. 1994.
Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook, 2nd ed.
Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mullen, C. A. 2003. The WIT cohort: A case
study of informal doctoral mentoring. Journal of Further and Higher
Education 27(4): 411–26.
Mullen, C. A., guest ed. 2004. Special issue:
Mapping a landscape of leadership: Cultivating scholarly, practical
inquiry. International Journal of Educational Reform 13(2).
Mullen, C. A. 2005. Fire and ice: Igniting
and channeling passion in new qualitative researchers.
Peter Lang.
Mullen, C. A. 2006. A graduate student guide:
Making the most of mentoring.
Education.
Mullen, C. A., with E. Tuten. in press.
Doctoral cohort mentoring: Interdependence, collaborative learning,
and cultural change. Scholar-Practitioner Quarterly 3(2).
Ray, K. W., and L. L. Laminack. 2001. The
writing workshop: Working through the hard parts (and they’re all
hard parts).
English.
Richardson, L. 1994. Writing: A method of
inquiry. In Handbook of qualitative research, ed. N. K. Denzin and
Y. S. Lincoln, 516–29.
Scardamalia, M., and C. Bereiter. 1986.
Research on written composition. In Handbook of research on
teaching, 3rd ed., ed. M. C. Wittrock, 778–803.
Macmillan.
Stevenson, C. N. 2006. Writing, teaching of.
In Encyclopedia of educational leadership and administration, vol.
2, ed. F. W. English, 1080–81.
Thomas, P. L. 2005. Teaching writing primer.
Writing Journal Part I By Endha Blog
Teaching Diverse Learners
|
|
Writing Considerations | Strategies | Literature Review Considerations for ELLs When students write, they draw upon the sum of their experiences in listening, speaking, and reading. As ELLs apply themselves to solving the problems they face in writing, such as how to spell a word, where to place a period or an adjective, how to introduce a character, or how to organize supporting details, they gain metalinguistic awareness. Producing text encourages conscious attention to the ways in which language conveys meaning. Effective teachers try to differentiate between ELLs' content knowledge and their writing proficiency. Although ELLs may achieve a high level of content knowledge, aspects of their writing (e.g., incomplete knowledge of idioms, vocabulary, and writing styles) can suggest a poor grasp of content. ELLs need opportunities to explain their writing to teachers and to obtain help in expressing their knowledge effectively. ELLs need to experience rich and well-integrated opportunities to participate in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Learning standard writing conventions is especially difficult for young ELLs who depend so much on visual cues and contextual relationships. Teachers help provide such cues and relationships when they write interactively with students and make writing a social activity. When writing interactively, teachers verbalize their thinking as they write (e.g, "I'm going to put a comma here after bananas because I want to list three fruits: bananas comma apples comma and grapes period. The comma tells the reader to pause in between, and the period says that's the end of the sentence."). Writing is interactive when teachers invite student participation (e.g., "What would be a good title for this journal entry? What was my topic?"). Effective teachers often provide a visual context for writing by having students draw a picture before they write. Teachers may elicit more detail and provide language models by talking with students about their drawings (e.g., "Tell me more about what's happening? I see the dog near the house. What's the dog doing? Is he barking? Is he making noise?"). Writing becomes a social activity when the teacher and students brainstorm together, read their work to each other, and talk about each other's writing. When it is the focus of social interaction, writing is supported by oral language and interpersonal relationships. Students write for the audience of their classmates and are eager to hear what others have written. There are many opportunities for students to learn from each other and from the teacher's interactions with their peers. Because writing in English is challenging for ELLs, their progress depends greatly on the learning environment and the scaffolding provided. When large writing tasks are subdivided into manageable steps, students experience greater success. ELLs may need more help with vocabulary, spelling, and word order than English-proficient students do, but helping ELLs get started is an investment in their development. Advice like "Sound it out" or "Find it on the word wall" can be appropriate for English-proficient students with strong literacy backgrounds. Beginning ELLs, on the other hand, may need help with breaking down a word into component sounds or with locating and identifying the word on the wall. Effective teachers observe students carefully for indications of what tasks they are ready to manage successfully on their own. In addition, purposeful writing projects, such as making invitations, get well cards, announcements, and class helper charts, engage students in the types of writing that they may see in their homes. When teachers provide such integrated opportunities for learning, ELLs can thrive as writers. Strategies
1. Teachers demonstrate how writing and reading are connected. Beginning ELL readers concentrate on word recognition and on grasping meaning. Differences in narrative style, voice, and genre may not be apparent to ELLs unless explicitly pointed out. Once students' basic reading skills become more automatic, they can begin to notice stylistic differences. Likewise, when ELLs master basic writing skills, they can begin to "try on" or emulate the styles they have read. A variety of strategies can draw students' attention to differences in narrative style and genre. To increase ELLs' exposure to a variety of texts, teachers can arrange for volunteers, aides, librarians, and older students to read to and with them. Book selection is not random. Teachers can choose two different books to compare their genres, such as the topic of animal behavior in fiction and nonfiction books. They can choose books by different authors to compare their styles. A week of reading informational books on animals can be followed by a group analysis of the types of information such books include (e.g., habitats, food, species, breeds, caring for young). This explicit analysis prepares students to write their own informational pieces. Students can compare different books using Venn diagrams and focusing questions. To compare texts, effective teachers say things like: Let's look at the books we read this week.
Effective teachers also seek information about home literacy practices and find interesting and often unexpected models to build upon. They say things like: Draw me a picture of someone in your family reading and writing.
Teachers also try to establish a flow of books to and from home. ELLs can read at home with English-speaking older siblings and family members. Parents who speak little or no English are often thrilled and proud to have their own children read to them in English. Appropriate children's books in Spanish and other languages may be read aloud in school by bilingual adults or older students, and the books may be sent home for families to enjoy together. 2. Teachers demonstrate how writing and reading are tools for thinking and learning. Early on, ELLs need to write frequently and become accustomed to the idea that writing is a recursive process involving revision and editing. With skillful teacher modeling and a sequence of manageable steps to follow, ELLs can use writing and reading as tools for thinking and learning. Effective teachers demonstrate how writers read their writing and get more ideas about what else to write. They model some of the questions that writers ask themselves to evaluate what they have written. There are many ways that teachers can support students' reading, writing, and thinking skills. English language learners (ELLs) can learn how to write from sources (e.g., two different fire engine books), to conduct and write up research (e.g., stories from their grandparents, a survey of classmates' pets, or school staff members' favorite foods), and to write persuasively about their opinions (e.g., "I think soccer is better than American football because . . . "). Effective teachers show students how to use graphic organizers such as timelines, Venn diagrams, semantic webs, and lists of pros and cons for decision-making. Teachers demonstrate how they evaluate their own writing and prompt students to do the same. To show students how to review their writing, teachers say things like: Did I introduce my main character, the person that the story is about?
Some teachers encourage ELLs to review their writing portfolios and to think and talk about what they have learned (e.g., Students make reflective comments such as, "I learned to use periods." "I use more capital letters now." "I didn't know how to spell school." "My daily journals were very short. It didn't have details."). ELLs are often amazed to see their own progress. Some teachers ask their students to select a paper from the portfolio to revise and edit once they have learned more. 3. Teachers explicitly demonstrate how brainstorming, drafting, revising, and editing are recursive processes. Effective teachers of ELLs employ a variety of strategies to encourage revision and editing. In formal and informal writing conferences, teachers ask young writers for more information or clarification. These prompts for revision can come from both teachers and students when students read to their classmates from the "author's chair" or during a writing workshop. To engage students in all aspects of the writing process, effective teachers structure writing projects in deliberate and distinct stages that require multiple re-readings and rewritings leading to "publication." For example, a first-grade English as a second language (ESL) teacher has her students write their stories in stages: beginning, middle, and end. After each section is completed, the writer reads it aloud to classmates and makes some revisions based on their responses. As students complete their story drafts, they have a publishing conference with the teacher. Each student reads aloud to the teacher, and she types the text using the class computer, often asking questions or making suggestions for revision. As the teacher makes the revisions on the computer, the student has to make the same changes to the original hand-written draft to better understand the revision process. The final printed pages are then illustrated, bound, and proudly read to classroom visitors, families, and friends. 4. Teachers model exemplary writing practices for their students and demonstrate how writers write about topics that are meaningful to them. ELLs may not be familiar with the many functions and types of writing used in our society and practiced in our schools. They may not know what to write about or may feel daunted by the difficulty of writing. For these reasons, effective teachers model how to write for a purpose and for an audience. By inviting students to observe and participate in the teacher's own writing process, ELLs can better understand ways to approach the task of writing. Effective teachers model not only the process of writing but also topic selection. They often model interactively, asking ELLs to participate in various dimensions of the teacher's writing process. This provides practice in the tasks of a writer and a glimpse into the decision-making process. Teachers say things like: Next Sunday is Mother's Day, so I am thinking about writing a Mother's Day card to my mother. I want to say thank you for many things.
5. Teachers teach grammar in the context of actual writing. ELLs learn many structural patterns of English unconsciously through hearing them and then using them in their speech. Basic communication is the first goal of language development. Effective teachers acknowledge the accomplishments of young ELLs and beginners who achieve basic communication in speaking and writing. When students speak or write sentences such as, "No like," "Want book," or "Him taking pencil, mine," they are conveying messages effectively, although these sentences are not conventionally grammatical. Beginners do not have an intuitive sense of what "sounds right" in English. That sense develops with time and experience. ELLs' grammar improves over time when they are provided with good language models, guided practice, clear explanations, and tactful but explicit feedback on grammatical correctness. Writing activities provide excellent context for providing the models, practice, explanations, and feedback that ELLs need. Effective teachers model their own writing process, using the opportunity to present mini-lessons in grammar. They say things like: I wrote two sentences: We walked in the woods yesterday. We fished in the river.
In addition, teachers use students' writing as an opportunity to focus on form. They say things like: I enjoyed reading in your journal about your day at the circus with Kim. It sounds like you two had a great time. It was really interesting to read about the acrobat dogs! Now let's go back and read your journal writing again to look at the language. I saw a sentence that needs some revising.
Taking it a step further, teachers design guided writing practice activities to focus on grammatical features that need attention. Based on the example above, extended activities might include those in the following scenario: On a Monday morning, the teacher asks each child to write three sentences about something that they did over the weekend with a friend or relative. The students first brainstorm a list of past tense verbs that they can use. The teacher calls on students for their suggestions, and she writes their words on chart paper. As she writes, she divides the words into two columns to highlight the difference between irregular past forms, such as went, saw, had, ate, bought, made, and regular verbs, such as talked, fished, played, cooked, visited. When a student contributes a verb without using the past tense, like listen, the teacher prompts the student to say the past form, listened.
6. Teachers provide varied and increasingly challenging writing experiences for students at all grade levels. While it is a good idea to have curricular guidelines specifying writing genres for each grade level, teachers cannot assume that all ELLs arrive in their classrooms with grade-level skills and experience in those genres. Teachers may not always be able to ascertain whether a particular writing style, skill, or genre was taught by previous teachers or whether the student was able to understand it when it was taught. Effective teachers understand that ELLs may need to gain experience in basic genres typically learned in earlier grades, such as picture labeling and "I like . . . " lists. ELLs who are beyond the beginner stage can write in more challenging genres, such as informational reports, short skits, and fictional narratives, when their teachers plan and structure the writing tasks carefully and provide good models. To get young English language learners (ELLs) started, teachers assign writing projects such as journals, narratives, letters, plays, poems, reports, instructions, lab reports, book reports, persuasive essays, and other genres that students will practice again in the grades to come. Effective teachers of ELLs in the upper grades add new and challenging writing tasks, while revisiting writing genres that their students may or may not have experienced or mastered previously. The following example is adapted from Teacher Talk and Writing Development in an Urban, First-Grade, English as a Second Language Classroom (Yedlin, J., 2003). An experienced English as a second language (ESL) teacher, Mrs. R. describes her formula for teaching a multilevel group of first graders: "Review, reiterate, and revisit again and again and again." Although her class makes great progress over the course of the year, taking on increasingly challenging writing tasks, Mrs. R. continues to revisit basics, such as letter names and sounds, sentence punctuation and capitalization, possessives and apostrophes, throughout the school year. She knows that when she teaches these basics in the fall, some newly arrived students, like Ricardo, are unable to understand. "Ricardo will never get the chance to learn basic punctuation if I've already packed it up and put it away when he's ready for it," she reflects. Even in the last month of the school year, when modeling her own three-part narrative, Mrs. R. asks for students' help with spelling, punctuating, and capitalizing. This provides Ricardo and students with another exposure to this material now that they are ready for it. Ricardo watches with interest as Mrs. R. writes down each letter of the word that the students spell for her. At the end of each sentence, she asks, "What goes here?" When students tell her, she writes the period and says, "That's right, a period. A period goes at the end . . . " "Of a sentence!" respond several children. During a brainstorming session on the topic of Our Favorite Places, Mona volunteers that her favorite place is "My cousin's house." Mrs. R. asks, "Whose house it? Who does the house belong to?" "My cousin," answers Mona. "The house belongs to her cousin, that is what this apostrophe means. This mark, this apostrophe means it belongs to her cousin. It isn't my house or Mona's house. It's her . . ." "Cousin's house!" chorus several children. Ricardo, who could do little more than listen and point in September, listens intently, and he joins the chorus, a beat or two after the others. 7. Teachers develop a list of core words for their students to use in their writing. The success of a piece of writing depends largely on the writer's vocabulary choices. In order to communicate effectively, writers need to know many words and to know those words well. This means knowing the various meanings a word may have (e.g., Mean, root, log, and citation are all examples of words with multiple meanings.); knowing how to use the word grammatically (e.g., We use a mop to mop the floor, but we don't broom the floor when we use a broom; we sweep it.); knowing the words it typically occurs with (e.g., toxic waste; poisonous snake); and knowing its level of politeness or formality (e.g., kids versus children, fake versus fictitious). Because this knowledge requires time and multiple exposures to each word in a variety of contexts, ELLs are likely to need a great deal of work in vocabulary in order to read and write like their English-proficient peers. Young writers also need to know how to spell words conventionally or how to represent them phonetically so that readers can understand them. To learn all of this, ELLs need rich listening, speaking, and reading experiences, multiple exposures to words, and explicit teaching of definitions and usage. Using words in writing to express their ideas is a culminating experience in which ELLs and other students make words their own! When working with ELLs at varying levels, effective teachers work with and augment the core word list for their grade level in several ways. Their classroom word walls and word webs include words that were taught in previous grades. They define words that students have asked for in their writing (e.g., How do you write video games? I don't know how to write In classrooms where many ELLs can already read Spanish, lists of Spanish-English cognates (i.e., "sister words" with common origins and meanings across languages, telephono/telephone, sal/salt, estudiar/study) are posted on the wall for Spanish-speaking students' reference. Picture dictionaries, labeled posters, and graphic organizers are also posted and discussed for the benefit of all children. 8. Teachers regularly integrate spelling into writing and reading instruction. Sounding out words and inventing spelling may be quite difficult for ELLs for a variety of reasons. ELLs may have inaccurate impressions of how some words are pronounced. They may be unclear about how particular sounds are represented in English. Some ELLs come from language backgrounds where sound-letter relationships are more constant or from backgrounds that disapprove of unconventional spelling. To learn to spell, ELLs need explicit instruction in the conventions of English spelling in the context of actual reading and writing. In order to help ELLs learn to spell, effective teachers direct students' attention to the spellings of words encountered while reading. They point out common spelling patterns and ask students to think of other words that follow the pattern (e.g., ate, late, gate, date) as well as derivational patterns (beauty/beautiful). Teachers point out spelling oddities (e.g., the /f/ sound in phone and photograph or the rhyming words good and should). When teachers write with students, they demonstrate how to segment words into phonemes and how to represent the phonemes with letters. Teachers use spelling terminology such as "silent e" or "double letter." They reference rules as they write (e.g., "I'm going to write about our parties. How do you spell party? When we write the plural, parties, I know I have to change this y to i and add es. Do you know any other words like that? How about puppy and bunny?"). Some ELLs "play it safe" when they write, using only words they have memorized or can copy from the classroom print environment. This can result in writing that has no spelling errors but also little individuality. Effective teachers encourage ELLs to figure out the spellings of new and different words that express their thoughts. It is important to see the proliferation of unconventional spelling as progress when the spelling reflects a student's willingness to experiment with sound-letter relationships and a desire to say interesting things. To cultivate accurate spelling, teachers design manipulative spelling activities in which students arrange, combine, match, and sort cards containing words, letters, syllables, prefixes, and suffixes. Literature Review Writing has been characterized as the most challenging of the literacy domains (Juel, 1994). Nelson and Nelson (1978) underscore the difficulty of writing by describing it as "a complex of interconnected systems" (p. 278). Writing requires simultaneous use of phonological, graphic, orthographic, semantic, syntactic, and discourse rule systems (Dyson & Freedman, 1991, p. 762). Most students learn to understand speech first, and then learn to read and write; English language learners (ELLs) have to do all this simultaneously. August and Hakuta (1997) acknowledge that there is little research that sheds light upon the enormous cognitive challenge faced by ELLs who must acquire oral and literacy skills. Yedlin (2003) identifies the prerequisite skills and knowledge that English writing demands of ELLs in the primary grades: In order to even begin writing English, the child must be able to discriminate aurally among various phonemes (sounds) and visually among graphemes (letters), and understand the relationships between sounds of speech and letters of the alphabet. Children must also recognize and remember high-frequency words that do not conform to orthographic regularities. Children must master the motor skills necessary to form and arrange the letters and to space words evenly. They must decide what to write about and be able to generate topics suitable for school writing. Furthermore, they must access and produce vocabulary and construct discourse patterns appropriate to their topics. (pp. 111-112) ELLs who have already learned to write in another language have knowledge and literacy skills that can help them write in English, but they still face many difficulties (Kroll, 1990). To become effective and fluent writers, ELLs must overcome their unfamiliarity with English syntax (Ammon, 1985) and develop their vocabulary. ELLs typically need to develop larger repertoires of words and to learn more about the multiple meanings, connotations, and usages of the words that they already recognize and use (August & Hakuta, 1997). In order to sound out and spell English words accurately, ELLs must surmount their unfamiliarity with the English sound system (Verhoeven, 1999; Yopp, 1992) and learn to perceive "speech chunks" as strings of individual words (Ellis, 1994). Finally, writers from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds may already be accustomed to different styles of writing and argumentation (Connor, 1987). Montaño-Harmon's (1991) research showed that Mexican students' English writing reflected the same discourse patterns that they had learned to use in Spanish. Kaplan (1967) found that many ELL compositions rated as vague, disorganized, or off-topic by The consensus of researchers and practitioners is that reading and listening to read-alouds has positive effects on developing ELLs’ vocabulary and other facets of their second language development, including writing (Krashen, 2004; Elley, 1991). However, there is little research yet to directly link listening and reading with writing performance (Lightbown, Halter, White, & Horst, 2002). Studies by Kreeft-Peyton (1990), Hudelson (1986), 1989), Franklin (1986), Ammon (1985), and Urzua (1987) demonstrate that when in supportive contexts, ELL students in the primary grades can write productively. Kreeft-Peyton defines supportive contexts as those characterized by: (1) "frequent opportunities to write, (2) rich language input from the teacher, and (3) teacher feedback focused primarily on content" (p. 195). In studies of a first-grade ESL class where writing improved substantially over the course of a school year, Yedlin (2003, 2004) observed the first two characteristics above, but also noted that the ESL teacher provided students with feedback on both content and form. In addition, Yedlin observed that this classroom supported ELL writing through a rich print environment containing a word wall and semantic chart listing frequently used words. Peregoy and Boyle (1997) have found that ELLs often use drawing as a pre-write and illustrate their stories and journal entries to support the communicative power of their writing. Yedlin (2003, 2004) described how a teacher used ELLs' drawings as a basis for conversation with students and for eliciting written elaboration of journal entries and stories. Dialogue journals, in which teachers reply in writing to student entries, and learning logs, in which students write about their content learning, have been found effective in encouraging ELLs to write daily, interact with the teacher, and reflect upon their learning and their comprehension (Kreeft-Peyton & Reed, 1990; Dolly, 1990). Research (Yedlin, 2003; Kucer & Silva, in press) and Carasquillo, Kuser, and Abrams' (2004) review of literature on writing all point to the benefits of intensive teacher modeling of writing accompanied by the teacher's explicit moment-to-moment account of thinking processes. Teachers model their composing processes by verbalizing their own thoughts about purpose, audience, genre, vocabulary choice, and spelling as they write demonstrations in class. Teachers model their revising and editing processes by rereading and evaluating out loud what they have written. Students may simply observe and listen or the teacher may engage students as participants by asking for help or opinions (Yedlin, 2003). Another way to assist ELLs with composing, rereading, and revising is for teachers to reference and graphically display structural features (e.g., beginning, middle, and end; setting and character; or cause and effect) and use rubrics. In such contexts, teachers use and explicitly explain discourse markers that signal what follows (e.g., Once upon a time, but, since, because, for example). Gradually, teachers involve students in interactive and shared writing activities where students gain increasing independence and teachers respond by "relinquishing control" (Carasquillo, Kuser, & Abrams, 2004, p. 46). Teachers also support students' writing by simplifying complex tasks into steps and stages that ELLs can manage (Yedlin, 2003, 2004). When well scaffolded, assignments to write reports, essays, and other genres (e.g., letters or journal entries by a historical figure) can encourage academic writing (Peregoy & Boyle, 1997). Authentic writing assignments such as invitations, letters, recipes, and simple books for younger children are highly motivating for ELLs. Maculaitis and Scheraga (1988) suggested that ELL students write easy-to-understand student handbooks for new arrivals. ELLs can be highly motivated by opportunities to write on culturally relevant topics in formats such as oral histories, country reports, and biographies of their heroes and celebrities (Peregoy & Boyle, 1997). Writing may well be the most challenging of the literacy domains (Juel, 1994), but a rich and responsive environment and well-scaffolded writing tasks can help ELLs flourish as writers. References: [return] Ammon, P. (1985). Helping children learn to write in English as a second language: Some observations and some hypotheses. In S. W. Freedman (Ed.), The acquisition of written language. [return] August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997). Improving schooling for language minority children: A research agenda. [return] Carasquillo, A., Kucer, B., & Abrams. R. (2004). Beyond the beginnings: Literacy interventions for upper elementary English language learners. [return] Connor, U. (1987). Argumentative patterns in student essays: Cross cultural differences. In U. Connor & R. B. Kaplan (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text, (pp. 57-71). [return] Dolly, M. R. (1990, February). Integrating ESL reading and writing through authentic discourse. The Journal of [return] Dyson, A. H., & Freedman, S. W. (1991). Writing. In J. Flood et al., (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts. [return] Elley, W. B. (1991). Acquiring literacy in a second language: The effect of book-based programs. Language Learning, 41, 375-411. [return] Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. [return] Franklin, E. A. (1986). Literacy instruction for ESL children. Language Arts, 63(1), 51-60. [return] Hudelson, S. (1986). ESL children’s writing: What we’ve learned, what we’re learning. In P. Rigg & D. S. Enright (Eds.), Children and ESL: Integrating perspectives. [return] Hudelson, S. (1989). A tale of two children: Individual differences in ESL children’s writing. In D. Johnson & D. Roen (Eds.), Richness in writing: Empowering ESL students. [return] Juel, C. (1994). Learning to read and write in one elementary school. [return] Kaplan, R. B. (1967). Contrastive Rhetoric and the Teaching of Composition. TESOL Quarterly 1(3), 10-16. [return] Krashen, S. (2004). The power of reading. [return] Kreeft-Peyton, J. (1990). Beginning at the beginning: First-grade ESL students learn to write. In A. Padilla, H. Fairchild, & C. Valadez (Eds.), Bilingual education: Issues and strategies. [return] Kreeft-Peyton, J., & Reed, L. (1990). Dialogue journal writing with nonnative English speakers: A handbook for teachers. [return] Kroll, B., (Ed.) (1990). Second language writing: Research insights for the classroom. [return] Kucer, S. B., & Silva, C. (In press). Teaching the dimensions of literacy. [return] Lightbown, P. M., Halter, R. H., White, J. L., & Horst, R. H. (2002). Comprehension-based learning: The limits of 'Do It Yourself.' Canadian Modern Language Review, 58(3), 427-464. [return] Maculaitis, J., & Scheraga, M. (1988). The complete ESL/EFL resource book: Strategies, activities, and units for the classroom. [return] Montaño-Harmon, M. (1991). Discourse features of written Mexican Spanish: Current research in contrastive rhetoric and its implications. Hispania, 74(2), 417-25. [return] Nelson, K., & Nelson, K. E. (1978). Cognitive pendulums and their linguistic realization. In K. E. Nelson (Ed.), Children's language. [return] Peregoy, S. F., & Boyle, O. F. (1997). Reading, writing, and learning in ESL. [return] Urzua, C. (1987). You stopped too soon: Second language children composing and revising. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 279-304. [return] Verhoeven, L. (1999). Second language reading. In D. Wagner, R. L. Venezky, & [return] Yedlin, J. (2003). Teacher talk and writing development in an urban, English-as-a-second-language, first-grade classroom. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard Graduate School of Education. [return] Yedlin, J. (2004, January/February). Teacher talk: Enabling ELLs to "grab on" and climb high. Perspectives. Available: http://www.mec.edu/mascd/docs/yedlin.htm [return] Yopp, H. K. (1992). Developing phonemic awareness in young children. The |
Langganan:
Postingan (Atom)